Descartes and the Metaphysical Doubt - 1235 Words

Descartes proves that God exists in his third meditation. He proves that God exists because he wants to be certain about things outside of himself. But, he cannot be certain of these things if he is ignorant about the existence of God. This is because if a supreme God exists, he could cause Descartes to be mistaken in the one avenue to certainty that he has. This avenue is known as clear and distinct perception, and, according to Descartes, it is what is necessary to be certain about a thing. However, a supreme God could easily be deceiving him even when he thinks he is correct as a result of this clear and distinct perception. This is known as the metaphysical doubt. Therefore, to remove this basis for doubt, it is important to Descartes†¦show more content†¦Put in a different way, a baby elephant will never be able to fly, because its ability to fly can never be more perfect than that same virtue contained in its parents. Descartes applies this concept of causation to idea s. For instance, Descartes has a certain idea that God is infinite. We can therefore say that Descartes idea of God contains infinity objectively, because, the idea of an infinite God is in his head. Since something must have caused this idea, it follows that its cause must be formally infinite. This basically means that the idea of infinity in Descartes was caused by something with at least as much reality. Picture the baby elephant illustration, the baby elephant is a representation of the formal reality of its parents. Now, Descartes himself is not an infinite being, so he cannot be the cause of this idea of infinity. This means that some other being outside him must be infinite, and we are left only to conclude that God exists. However, someone might say that their idea of God is different to Descartes. For instance, Descartes idea of God is that he is infinite, but my idea of God might be that he is invisible. We have different objective realities of who God is. Therefore, both ideas surely cannot resemble the same God outside of us. In response to this argument, Descartes might say the following. Although it is true that given the causal adequacy principle for ideas, my idea of an invisible God would mean that God is invisible, thisShow MoreRelatedDescartes Doubt And Crime1317 Words   |  6 Pages Descartes Re-visited Doubt and Crime Kirsten Besheer, in â€Å"Descartes’ Doubts: Physiology and the First Meditation,† makes the caution that â€Å"many commentators dismiss the First Meditation with a scant summary usually involving key words like ‘dreams’ and ‘doubt.’ This being the case, I am not surprised that the rest of the Meditations have remained opaque to them†(55). What Besheer is warning against, specifically, is an uncritical examination of Descartes. For, as the years continue to distant theRead More The Folly of Renà © Descartes’ Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy1462 Words   |  6 PagesThe Folly of Renà © Descartes’ Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy In order to embark on his quest for truth, Descartes first devises his four rules which should serve as a solid foundation for all else that he comes to understand. Those rules are here evaluated in terms of what they fail to take into consideration. The rules are examined individually and consecutively, and are therefore also reiterated in order to be clear about them. Furthermore, the approach of usingRead MoreRene Descartes And Kant1013 Words   |  5 Pagesworth studying, a common theme present amongst Renà © Descartes, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant is the fact that all three philosophers challenged the traditional ways of thinking about philosophy respective to their eras. In certain aspects, all three of these philosophers also grappled with understanding, discovering, and logically explaining the power of the mind to shape whole truths. From Descartes’ foundational work with methodological doubt to Kant’s contribution to previous philosophical conceptsRead M oreThe Cartesian Circle Essay913 Words   |  4 PagesDescartes’ Cartesian Circle Descartes’ â€Å"Cartesian Circle† has come under fire from countless philosophers because it supposedly commits a logical fallacy with its circular reasoning. In his second Meditation, Descartes attempts to prove the existence of God. He states that clear and distinct perception leads to knowledge, and that God’s existence is apparent and obvious because of things we have come to perceive as knowledge. Furthermore, he asserts that we cannot turn these perceptions intoRead MoreRene Descartes And Blaise Pascal1619 Words   |  7 PagesRene Descartes and Blaise Pascal were philosophers with a common goal – bringing others to the truth of the existence of God. They both had a desire to help others scale the heights of religion, using the path of reason, and bring them to the other side with a firm perception and knowledge of the reality of, not just a god, but the one, true God. Though their goal and method was similar, that of using doubt as a vehicle to t raverse the oppositional arguments of unbelievers, they arrive at differentRead MoreThe Life of Rene’ Descartes: His Works and His Beliefs in God1578 Words   |  7 PagesWas Rene’ Descartes just a visionary of truth, mathematical equations or was he truly a man that knew he was born to tell the world about life, knowledge, and how it all came together metaphorically? Please see the research on Rene’ Descartes cited accomplishments. Descartes was known as the first modern philosopher. Famous for making a connection between geometry and algebra, which allowed for solving of geometrical problem by way of algebraic equations, which promoted a new conception of matterRead MoreDescartes Essay example757 Words   |  4 PagesDescartes Is our education complete once a degree has been earned? Have we learned all there is to know? Can we be sure of what we have come to know? Only a completely self-assured person might answer yes to these questions, but for Rene Descartes (1596-1650) the completion of his formal education left him feeling and thinking he was still ignorant about the certainties of human experience and existence. This prominent Renaissance philosopher conquered the world of uncertainty in a workRead MoreEssay about Descartes discourse on method931 Words   |  4 Pages Understanding Descartes’ Method of Doubt Clear your mind, if you will, of everything you have ever seen or known to be true. To begin understanding Rene Descartes’ method of doubt, you need to suspend all prejudice and prior judgments and start with a clean slate â€Å"for the purpose of discovering some ultimate truth on which to base all thought.† (Kolak, Pg.225). Discouraged with much skepticism from his own beliefs, Descartes was embarrassed of his own ignorance. He set out to try and accomplishRead MoreDescartes Discourse on Method931 Words   |  4 PagesUnderstanding Descartes Method of Doubt Clear your mind, if you will, of everything you have ever seen or known to be true. To begin understanding Rene Descartes method of doubt, you need to suspend all prejudice and prior judgments and start with a clean slate for the purpose of discovering some ultimate truth on which to base all thought. (Kolak, Pg.225). Discouraged with much skepticism from his own beliefs, Descartes was embarrassed of his own ignorance. He set out to try and accomplishRead MoreDescartes s Meditations, Descartes Essay1139 Words   |  5 Pages1 Though unstated throughout his meditations, Descartes primary goal in the Meditations is to lay a strong foundation for the mathematical science that is emerging during his lifetime. There are two Aristotelian doctrines that Descartes wants to reject, the first which is final causation. The second is qualitative science, because Descartes tends to favor quantitative science over final causation. In Descartes’s first meditation his method of doubt is seen clearly since he knows that he believes

Theory of Successful Aging - 1648 Words

Theory Of Successful Aging INTERNAL CRITICISM Adequacy: The Flood’s Theory of Successful Aging (Flood, 2005) was developed to addresses a nursing theory for care of the older adult regarding to the lack of nursing theory that offers clearly delineated guidelines for care of aging. Flood’s(2002) unique definition of successful aging among other explanations includes mental, physical, and spiritual elements of the aging person and emphasizing the individuals self appraisal. She used existing knowledge derived deductively from the Roy adaptation model, one of the most widely accepted nursing theory model, and integrated these ideas with Tornstams sociological theory of gerotranscendence and literature related to the concept of successful†¦show more content†¦These concepts can be understood without lengthy descriptions and explanations. In this study, the author employed a variation of deductive reformulation, a process involving the derivation of existing knowledge from a non-nursing theory integrated with k nowledge obtained deductively from a nursing conceptual model which would allow for a more logical presentation of how the components relate to each other. Moreover, the model is exhibited in this paper is an elucidate of the theory’s components structure and would present the interrelationship of its components. The theory is parsimonious in that â€Å"it is clear and concise in explanations of the concepts† (Bredow, 2009, p. 55). Discrimination: The scientific process of deductive reformulation lends credibility and sound logic to Flood’s theory of successful aging. Flood, founder who is an advanced practice registered nurse, used deductive reformulation to develop her theory of successful aging in nursing discipline. Without any other useful theory of aging to guide nursing care, Floods (2005) theory offers promise for nursing. This theory provides a useful framework for interventions that target the mental, physical, and spiritual health of aging persons. It would be able to produce hypotheses that will lead to research results in older adult nursing research. However, there is no evidence of a nursing research using this theory. Reality Convergence: The underlyingShow MoreRelatedThe Aging Process For The Older Adults Essay1587 Words   |  7 Pages Successful Aging Paper Albatul Albulayhi University of the Incarnate Word â€Æ' Successful Aging Paper Aging is inevitable; as people age in the second half of life, the body often faces some challenges mentally and physically. Aging was defined by Robert Arking (1998), as a â€Å" Time-dependent series of cumulative, progressive, intrinsic, and harmful changes that begin to manifest at reproductive maturity and eventually end in death† (p. 520). The aging process for the older adults is influenced byRead MoreSociological Aging : A Sociological Perspective Essay902 Words   |  4 PagesSociological Aging Social aging is referring to the changes in individual’s roles and relationship in the society as they age. There are many different theories concerning sociological aging. Social theories on aging examine the relationship between individual experiences and social institutions e.g., aging and retirement; aging and institutional care; aging and government policy etc (Barkan 2012). All have limitations, and some can be considered more than others when attempting to understand socialRead MoreThe Success Of Successful Aging1065 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinition of success, successful aging means many different things to different people. While the subject of successful and vital aging can be inspiring and empowering, it undoubtedly requires flexibility and adaptation in response to changes in health and functioning that are quite common as individuals inevitably age. Through formulated theories and suppositions proposed throughout decades in gerontological studies, many agree upon consistencies that exist across chronological aging. However, there areRead MoreDisengagement Theory Is The First Formal Theory Of Aging873 Words   |  4 PagesDisengagement theory is the first formal theory of aging. It was first proposed in 1961 by Elaine Cumming and William Hendry. They both were researchers from the University of Chicago. The two developed their theory in their book Growing Old: The Process of Disengagement. In the book they criticized the implicit theory that people can adjust, be satisfied, and happy in old age. They can also be physically involved and remain active throughout their lives. â€Å"Cumming and Henry argued that normal aging involvesRead MoreIntroduction Of Late Adulthood And Retirement1659 Words   |  7 Pageschildhood, adolescence, early adulthood and late adulthood. Those different stages of development present characteristics which are particular to each stage. The last decade had seen an increase with people age sixty and above. Conseq uently, this aging population has significant effects on many aspect of society. Life expectancy which was of 50 years in the 19th century had tremendously increase. Indeed the factors contributing to the longevity include; public health measure to many factors suchRead MoreMy Attitudes Towards The Elderly1031 Words   |  5 Pages Society as whole has many false beliefs and preconceived notions about the aging population. I myself have harboured dozens of them throughout my lifetime. However, there are a select few that have stood the test of time as they continue to guide my attitudes towards the elderly. Though one of the oldest stereotypes in the book, I unfortunately see the elderly as being a generally unhappy (grumpy) group. I rationalize to myself that they are this way due to deteriorating health, and also becauseRead MoreA Research Study On Successful Aging919 Words   |  4 PagesSuccessful aging is a complicated and multifaceted concept that varies contextually among individuals, disciplines, and even time. Gerontologists have traditionally considered a person to have aged successfully upon having reached old age with their physical health, mental well-being and spirit still intact. Ultimately, successful aging is a matter of personal perspective, largely influenced by an individual s values and ex periences. Even those within America s elderly population hold conflictingRead MoreAn Insight Of. Erikson Theory On Aging. Anthony Isamade.968 Words   |  4 Pages An Insight of Erikson Theory on Aging Anthony Isamade Oluwatosin Abegunde Nursing Care Concepts Aging Jean Eaton January 27, 2017 Abstract A perception of old age and the crisis associated with it. Erikson theory illuminates these various issues associated with old age through Ego Integrity vs Despair, and generates ideas that the future generations now employ to understand Aging. An Insight of Erikson Theory on Aging Aging is a concept that impacts our society. WithRead MoreSymbolic Interactionist Perspective In Sociology1543 Words   |  7 Pagesaddresses society as a whole by standards of norms, customs, traditions, and institutions. While once criticized for failure to account for social change and ignoring systematic inequalities that naturally produce tension and conflict. The functionalist theory easily allows for specific macro-analyses of more contentious power imbalances while also permitting a micro-analyses such as identify formation. (Contributors at CliffsNotes, 2016) Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective, primarily originatingRead MoreWhat Can You Tell About A Population By Looking At Its Population Pyramid?1392 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"baby boomers† group is aging, they will require increased medical and financial support. According to the population pyramid there are more â€Å"baby boomers† than the individuals available to provide needed care to them. 2. Discuss the findings of at least one major longitudinal study of aging. Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA), began in 1958 by Nathan Shock, Ph.D. and William W. Peter, M.D. BLSA is the world’s most comprehensive and longest longitudinal study of aging in the world, which continues

Platos Two

Platos Two-World Theory Essay How Plato Used His Two-Worlds Theory As an Argument Against the Three Predominant Pre-Socratic Theories on Reality One of the ongoing quests in human history is the search for what is reality composed of and what can one use to determine what is real and what is merely an illusion or perhaps part of a false reality. This search can be traced back as far as some of the pre-Socratic philosophers. The three more popular theories that were around came from three pre-Socratic philosophers, Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Parmenides. All three philosophers had a theory of what reality is composed of and what the ultimate reality is. Plato came along and more or less combined the three theories into one larger theory that is now called Plato’s Two-Worlds Theory. Plato’s Two-Worlds Theory is a relatively simple theory. Plato suggests that there are two worlds, or realms. The first world is perfect and is referred to as the World of Being. The second world is the imperfect world, called the World of Becoming. The two realms are separate from each other; however, there is a connection that exists between the two worlds. We will write a custom essay on Platos Two-World Theory specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The only way that the World of Becoming can be connected to the World of Being is through participation. The World of Becoming is inhabited by all tangible objects. The World of Being contains something that Plato refers to as Forms. Forms are essentially ideas, but there are four requirements that must be met in order to classify something as a Form. A Form must be eternal, perfect, transcendent, and objective. This means that an object cannot be in the World of Being, but an object being that object, such as a Douglas fir being a tree. The tree cannot be in the World of Being, but treeness is; therefore, the Douglas fir is participating in the World of Being which is the one connection between the two worlds described in Plato’s theory. This theory was used as a rebuttal against other theories of Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Parmenides. Heraclitus is a monistic and a materialistic philosopher. Heraclitus said that the basis for reality was fire or some manifestation of fire. Fire is one of the four elements that were recognized at that time in history, and it is also considered very spiritual. The reason that Heraclitus chose fire as the element that makes up what is considered by him to be reality is because both fire and the world are in a constant state of flux. If one was to watch fire burn they would notice that the shape is always fluctuating and never stops moving. The world is doing the same thing. In organic objects, cells are constantly dying and falling away from the organic matter and new cells are being reproduced. In the human body, blood vessels and capillaries are constantly changing size based on what the environment is around the body. Plato challenged this theory by saying that the only reality was in the World of Being, and the only way that something could be considered to be a Form, which is all that exists in the World of Being, it must be eternal which means that the Form can have no beginning and no end, and that the Form must never change. If reality is constantly changing, than according to Plato, it is not perfect; therefore it is in the World of Becoming and is not real. Protagoras is a realistic pluralist whose theory is more or less a theory of relativism. Protagoras states that there were as many different theories of reality as there are people on the planet. The theory states that man is the measure of all things. This means that the view of reality and its composition varies from person to person and that the view is only relative to that person. Plato combated this theory by making the Two-Worlds theory an absolutist theory. The requirement for a Form to be objective and perfect which effectively prevents a Form from being relative and changing. Parmenides’ perception of reality is similar to the basics of most monotheistic religions. .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .postImageUrl , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:hover , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:visited , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:active { border:0!important; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:active , .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7 .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1288ffa59975a620c3914e7e989270e7:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: An American Crisis: Gulf War Syndrome EssayParmenides states that reality is eternal and unchanging. Because the world is constantly changing, everything that people perceive as reality is an illusion because his theory states that reality must never change. This theory more or less means that everyone is living in a false reality and that what one perceives to be real is an illusion with one exception. The only reality that Parmenides recognizes, he refers to it as â€Å"the One. † He states that â€Å"the One† is unchanging and has no beginning or an end, very much like the deity worshipped in a monotheistic religion. Plato does agree with this theory by saying that Forms must be eternal, but he also argues that the world is not an illusion or a false reality. Reality is merely the act of being which means that what people are doing on this earth is being human which is participation in the other world through humanness which gives mankind a reason for existence. During the two thousand years following the death of Aristotle, the west attempted to make the beliefs of that time period fit with Plato’s Two-Worlds Theory. His theory was one of the more advanced theories of that time drawing inspiration from some of the various pre-Socratic theories of that time. Plato’s theory also seems to be a basis of some sort for a couple of the monotheistic religions. If one was to compare Christianity to Plato’s Two-Worlds theory, one would see how both contain two separate worlds, but Christianity holds the belief that it is possible to travel between the two worlds. The Two-Worlds Theory seems to have inspired mankind for centuries, and it will most likely continue to inspire mankind for centuries to come.

Parsons and Weber Tools and Trade

Talcott Parsons and Marx Weber are two social theorists whose contribution in sociology is undeniable. However, their views are very different although Parsons is a student of Weber. When Parsons first arrived in Heildelberg, Weber’s influence still had a strong grip on the community here despite the latter having died several years earlier (Calhoun et al 82). Weber’s social theories further resonated with Parsons because they had a spiritual and cultural orientation to them.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Parsons and Weber: Tools and Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Weber‘s social theories suggest that human beings level of understanding is curtailed by the difficulties in understanding why social events occur in a specific manner. Weber’s approach is more accommodating in its scope because it suggests that understanding is either observational or explanatory (Calhoun et al 220) . Parsons’ theories on the other hand were based on a behaviorist approach, meaning that human beings can deduce social meanings through observation (Calhoun et al 98). Key methodological issues introduced by Parsons and Weber Parsons’ contributions to social theories and social actions include his analysis of social institutions, outlining systemic theory into sociology, description of the voluntaristic theory of action and analysis of anti-Semitism, fascism and aggression as the main problems facing the society (Calhoun et al 82). Parsons’ action theory explains how structures in the society fit together. The identified systems in this theory include: social systems, cultural systems, personality systems and behavioral-organism system. Weber’s theories address individual actions based in a social environment, and people’s interaction with the environment. The main difference between the two is that while Weber takes symbolic-interactions perspect ives in his theories, Parsons’ approach addresses the same from a functionalistic perspective. Voluntaristic Theory of Action Parsons regarded the development of social theory as having developed from three traditions namely: society, man’s nature and human behavior (Calhoun et al 110). Before he set out to put up his own theory about the society, Parsons took time to study work done by other socialist and concluded that â€Å"none of them has ever captured the entire truth about social behavior† (Calhoun et al 110). As such, he took it upon himself to develop a theory that would reconcile and integrate the truths captured by other social theorists. He considered past works by Max Weber, Pareto, Durkheim and Marshall (Calhoun et al 82). Utilitarianism and economic theory Parsons captured this theory because it is systemic, analytical and action oriented (Calhoun et al 110). The theory deals with action, experience and understanding since it gives the society a m otivation dynamic that explains behavior, thus helping people to anticipate specific things when conditions that are assumed in the theory happen.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Parsons however had strong arguments against the economic theory as it were stating that economists who held the theory’s conception need to accept that the theory has no precise application in the empirical world. As such, Parsons argued that a pure economic theory would never achieve the general theory status because neither the classical nor the utilitarian economists were able to develop a theory that took social order into consideration without having to infuse rationalistic or individualistic frameworks in to their theories (Calhoun et al 141). Weber on his part argued that understanding (verstehen) was the ideal way of studying social phenomenon since it would help human beings to understa nd their actions, interactions and experiences (Calhoun et al 142) Significant points between Parsons and Weber Parsons and Weber main difference regards their approach to understanding. According to (Calhoun et al 33), â€Å"Parsons lays little regard to material objects revealed through empathy or introspection. Weber on the other hand, does not recognize the distinction of material objects since his sociology is based on real subjective and objective components†. Weber’s approach is tenable when one considers the difference between behavior and action. This is because behavior refers individual actions, whereby the actor has no clear consciousness of the motivation behind it. As such, Weber states that â€Å"behavior is not understandable†. Parsons however fails to recognize this aspect of Weber’s allegation and instead focuses on an action theory, which assumes that human actions are voluntary, symbolic and unintentional (Calhoun et al 77). Another di stinction between Parsons and Weber is their approach to economics. Parsons developed a four-prong system based on four tasks, which relates to the environment. Commonly referred to as the GAIL system, the system is based on polity (Goal-attainment), economy (adaptation), cultural system concerned with social control and law (integration) and normative motivation to fulfill roles in the society (latency). To Parsons therefore, economic prosperity is reliant on how well the scarce resources in a given environment were allocated. This was a reflection of his idealistic approach (Parsons 20, cited in Calhoun et al 40). Weber on the other hand attributed economic prosperity to a society’s work ethic. To him, the more committed a society was to work, the higher their chances of economic success.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Parsons and Weber: Tools and Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Weber terms the notion that government can decide the economic reality of a society through legislation as misguided. â€Å"In future as in the past, it will be the ‘interests’ of individuals rather that the ‘ideas’ of an economic administration which will rule the world.† (Calhoun et al 77). He further points out that the proclamations by governments do not in any way affect the value of money. Rather, money’s value is determined by its associations with other goods, thus meaning that â€Å"money is not only a means of payment, but a means of exchange too.’(Calhoun et al 77). To Parsons, demand and supply economics was at the basis of his economic theories. He perceived money as a ‘medium of exchange’, whereby the capitalist could purchase labor through money rather than giving the labor provider a means of existence such as food or clothing (Parsons 112). To Parsons, moneys value did not just stop at being a medium of exchange. Rather, it is also a ‘measure of trust’, hence providing the society with a tool to measure the trustworthiness of their social interactions. Parsons grouped money with other media that circulates in the society. In particular, he grouped money with commitment, influence and power, stating that the four (money, commitment, influence and power) circulated in the society thus allowing people to achieve specific objectives (Parsons 324 cited by Calhoun et al 142). These sentiments are shared by Weber. However, his approach is more from a power-money standpoint. He argues that politics and power is a preserve of the wealthy because the average person is too absorbed in making a living such that even if he had the interest or potential for politics, he would not find the time necessary to commit to politics in order to win an elective post. â€Å"Democracy has only the choice of being run cheaply by rich who hold honorary office or of being run expensively by paid professional poli ticians† (Calhoun et al 113). He however ruled out the possibility that the society would pay professional politicians to run the politics of the country thus concluding that influence and power was the reserve of the wealthy people in the society. Although he learnt a great deal of sociology from Weber, Parsons was reluctant to admit Weber’s view regarding that â€Å"objects susceptible to interpretative understanding are just as real as the phenomena recognized by the behaviorists.† (Calhoun et al 35).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This was despite Weber’s explanation that the phenomena required different study procedures. Instead, Parsons adopted a problematic strategy, based on structural functional analysis, capable of exemplifying social phenomena on priori models of dependence and interrelation (Calhoun et al 49). Weber is skeptic when it comes to the suggestion that a socialist economy can be run without money being the mode of exchange. Even when the economy is small, dealing with simple identifiable needs and centered on consumption only, Weber still expresses doubt that people would be able to trade efficiently in such an environment. â€Å"How does one determine which parts of the economy are doing poorly or what factor of production has contributed to product value?† (Calhoun et al 14). To Weber, a society without money is almost impossible because people would have to incentive to evaluate alternative cost. To Weber, social action presents the most ideal means of analysis society. Acc ording to him, action involves verstehen– â€Å"understanding of subjective motivations† (Calhoun et al 207). As such, his theories were based on the ability of one form of social order (e.g. religion, culture or economics) that could transform other domains of the society. He further argued that social actions by individuals were as a result of benefit calculation or conscious cost in the different spheres of life (Calhoun et al 207). This meant that people were no longer tied to traditional guidelines set by the society. In the Voluntaristic theory, Parsons suggests that a society should or would not adopt a set of values. His argument suggested that societies need common orienting principles. His argument was based on the belief that human actors in a society are faced with five variable dilemmas. â€Å"Gratification-discipline, private-collective, universalism-particularism, achievement-ascription, and specificity-diffuseness† (Calhoun et al 403). Based on t hese, Parsons argued that the society had a cultural system, a personality system and a social system, all which were interdependent on each other. Conclusion Where Weber talks of environment and organisms, Parsons talks of a situation and an actor; where Weber talks of response or behavior, Parson discusses action. From the theories suggested by Parsons and Weber, one gets the impression that social organization consists of social systems, culture, roles and stratifications, which set the conditions which the society is supposed to act on. However, it is noteworthy that more often than not, people act towards situations rather than towards social structures or culture. This then means that social organization is only potent to the extent where it shapes societal situations thus giving people a reason to act. According to Calhoun et al (77) social organization can also prompt people to act by giving them with symbols that could help them interpret situations? Both Parson and Weber h as given us a reason to view the human society as an organization by identifying the society, conditions or forms that people identify with, and identifying what is most likely to bring change in the specific society. Works Cited Calhoun, Craig, Gerteis, Joseph, Moody, James, Pfaff, Steven and Virk, Indermohan. Contemporary Sociological Theory. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. Print. Calhoun, Craig, Gerteis, Joseph, Moody, James, Pfaff, Steven and Virk, Indermohan. Classical Sociological Theory. 2nd ed. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2007. Print. This essay on Parsons and Weber: Tools and Trade was written and submitted by user Landry Leon to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.